AD 2025

[Notes from my Little Letter Republic]

Whenever I feel plucked out of time, or stumble into a trough of aimlessness, or when philosophical questions addle the mind, I shake myself out of such lethargy by taking to one of the oceans of intellectual inquiry which in themselves are enjoyable and lend little prospect for my own career advancement: languages and mathematics.

This January was no different. Like the Finnish tradition of forswearing alcohol for the month of January, I put down the bottle and picked up a different intoxicant: Biblical Hebrew. Endeavoring to learn Genesis 1 and some few prayers, I managed to become significantly more comfortable with the “alephbet” and to build a bit of vocabulary before the old desire for practical advancement and struggle came back to alleviate my self-imposed relaxation. Similarly, I made several advancements in my deployment of integral calculus and spherical trigonometry.

And thus, after plucking the first fruits from the tree of knowledge, I stole away from the garden and went back to researching and writing essays. One on Milton-based humanities curriculum (John Milton) and another on reforming the aesthetics of the St. Louis Science Center.

This year was the biggest work change in 5 years, as I was finally able to reduce my workload from 3 full time jobs to 1.5. Over the past 6 months I have offloaded 96% of my administrative duties on one campus and dropped teaching two courses. So now I am only executive director of one campus and a teacher for three courses.

I spend a lot time staring at financial models, which I enjoy, talking to students and colleagues, which I enjoy, and running the gauntlet of open houses, follow ups, enrollments, check-ins, re-enrollments, update emails, hiring, follow ups, and subbing.

Now teaching at a a classical, catholic, hybrid school is one of the best places one can be. It is intellectually stimulating, the colleagues are intelligent and dedicated, the students are interested and engaged, the vibe is low-tech and bookish. I am raising my kids in a community of other parents who are also raising larger families, and so we have a deep solidarity.

Because of my reduced workload on the two home days I spend 5 hours working and 5 hours with the kids while being the executive function for my son in his home day work for kindergarten. That home day work takes about 45 minutes — usually spread out over an 1.5 hrs.

I am slowly figuring out how to work the finances of the school better so that we can compensate our full day people: if we found the donor who could make that happen, we’d easily be the best educational institution to work at in St. Louis. We’re already extremely close. My philosophy is “hiring is policy” and “quality of life is half compensation.” Or as I sometimes say; it’s a phenomenal place to work if you can afford it!

Last semester I taught two Latin courses, Geometry, Chemistry. This semester I have math, Latin, and moral philosophy.

Latin this year has been more fruitful than normal. Teaching the Aeneid in Latin is always a treat. And Vergil’s poetic style, my Lord, there is nothing like it! “Sink their submerged decks!” or “Disiectam Aeneae, toto videt aequore classem,” which can’t really be translated justly.

And this year I read more of the Roman historian Sallust in Latin, whose opening to Bellum Catilinae stirs up moral and intellectual ambition in the soul. But Leibniz’s Latin mathematical writings were especially fun and clear. It felt especially clarifying to be explained quadratures in Latin.

And just as sweet, since I have a colleague who delights in Latin, we together read Latin poetry together this year.

One of my favorite things about my local friends is that we read and discuss poetry together. I highly recommend finding friends who will do this with you!

I think often about what place I want to build for Latin in educational culture. I rely on the analogy of music. Latin is an instrument unlike other instruments. Why learn to play an instrument, but for the pleasure of being the conduit of the music? There is no way to get the pleasures of Latin without reading Latin, just as there is no way to get the pleasure of musical performance without playing the instrument. And because Latin grants access to particular cultures, if you want the ideas from those cultures to be part of the makeup of your soul, then you will want Latin – for law, for poetry, for hymns, for medieval philosophy and theology, and the early stages of the scientific revolution.

It’s embarrassing to me that my favorite ancient texts are actually almost all in Greek. Plato, Thucydides, Ptolemy, Archimedes, Aristotle… Greek has the best material, superior to Latin. And my Greek is out of practice. Yet by being the language of administration, Latin became the language of Western Europe. There might be a lesson there about the relationship between academic and civic language and culture. Perhaps if general Belisarius had succeeded in conquering Italy…

Antigone Journal has an ongoing contest for contemporary Greek and Latin editions, the prize being a complete Loeb Classical Library. I am excited about this, because there is some prospect for building more intentional living communities of classical learning, despite the falling numbers of departments and programs. The National Latin Exam, for example, continues to decline in number of participants, but the bleeding, I predict, will stop in the next 5 years if not sooner.

And even more exciting is that we will unlock the library of Philodemus using all that AI compute. It really has never been a better time to brush up on your Ancient Greek!

In Moral Philosophy, I finally have each of my lectures thoroughly worked out enough that I can compile my handbook for Applied Virtue Ethics with its tour of Kant, Mill, Aristotle, and Aquinas. What I really want to get across is a theory of justice which takes seriously justice in exchange as the form of justice which undergirds economics and much of daily life, and prudence as a personal art of expected value calculation. With a proper theory of double effect, I can help vastly improve reasoning in several areas, from clinical trials to immigration to national defense and romance. I especially want to challenge Catholic relativism in matters of prudence, which is a widespread issue, and provide a theory of justice that can clearly ground higher quality Catholic social thought.


My reduction in duties has gone well. At my peak pain point I was running a school, dean of high school at a different campus and teaching 8 courses across two campuses. So I know I have a great capacity to run on all cylinders.

And I will take on new projects in the future, but for now I am trying to explore, explore, explore, and resisting the sultry and racy seduction of new commitments, whose lips drip with the honey of deception and whose eyes shine with the meretricious allure of the oxygenless void.

The big events of this year for me have been recruiting one of my friends back into St. Louis to teach with me, hiring a former student of mine and team teaching with him, joining the Center for Educational Progress, visiting Ghana for the Emergent Ventures African and Caribbean conference, and presenting at the Fitzwilliam Seminar on Milton Friedman at the University of Chicago.

I am really proud of my friend Jack for finally launching the Center for Education Progress, which he has been talking about in various forms since at least 2018. So far the organization has an impressive list of allies and has published many excellent essays over at educationprogress.org. I have been able to assist the marvelous team on the policy proposal document providing guidance to certain government agencies, and I hope to keep working on some more projects soon.

I have also enjoyed befriending Anjan Katta and learning from him about the very cool hardware stack currently deployed in the Daylight Computer and possible futures there. I think the tech he has in the pipeline is really phenomenal. I look forward to seeing those iterations and being some contributor to his work’s success.

At EV Arlington, I made several new friends. Fergus let me stay in his room when my flight was cancelled, and Dan and I solved the mystery of the CCP scriptures. I suppose the message I took away from that conference was “Keep building your own society.”


My first time in Africa was for this years Emergent Ventures conference in Accra. These are observations from my green eyes.

It was more difficult to get into Ghana than expected. Getting the yellow fever vaccine required 16.5 phone calls and hunting for regulatory arbitrage. The unsecure visa portal stole my credit card, and when I messed up some paperwork the consulate was unresponsive. Once en route, though, it was easy entry into the country, and I found friends in the DC airport, Sebastian of Panama and Lamin.

My first impression of Accra was a deep inner peace at the high quality queuing at the baggage claim. The British did their work well, I thought to myself. Ghana was extremely safe. Jerry Rawlings, sir, you did in fact set the society on a peaceful path. One could tell by the posture and body language of people that the expectations for social interaction were positive (and I don’t mean interaction with me – a comparatively rich tourist). The general tenor of the streets was of safety.

My second impression of Accra was that the roads are good. We drove down the airport drive and the road was perfect. The minister of defense and some other ministers tragically died a few days prior in a tragic helicopter accident. Our bus driver blamed the cheap government for buying unreliable Chinese helicopters and not servicing them properly. And now as our conversation about culture turned to the finer points of the origins of Accra neighborhoods, the road literally disappeared at a major intersection. What is this? Why is a major intersection missing street? It would take a single day to fix this giant welfare loss. 50 mph driving suddenly slowed to 5 mph and into a great cacophony of chittering beeps as cars, trucks, vans and transports signal, hoot, hand gesture a negotiation through the intersection. It was a kind of beautiful harmony that I grew to love. The beauty of emergent order and communication on total display! But the achievement of infrastructure is to, you know, decrease the chaos, and increase the speed.

This led me to a second observation about the cars themselves. Old, beat up, painted and repainted coups were super common. Seeing people zip along in their cars, I could feel the love of cars throughout city. People love their cars and want to keep them going as long as possible. At the same time I was impressed by the number of new Kias, Hyundais, I even saw a couple Honda Accords. The frugal lower-class altruist and stingy saver within was almost offended: “You took out debt to buy that!” But I thought of the Queen song “I am in Love with my Car,” which basically justifies car culture on its own. Pace, walkability enthusiasts.

The third impression I had of Accra concerned labor. I have never seen intersections lined with people selling snacks and doodads in such numbers – one person was even selling a nail clipper set – nor have I seen such a high number of people doing very similar jobs, taxis everywhere, 5 porters at the hotel door, three clerks at the desk, several pool boys – a very visceral oversupply of labor. Immediately my mind started turning on how to turn the labor force into higher value occupations in as few steps as possible.

My goals in Ghana were to learn to negotiate prices, learn why every African independence leader was a socialist, and discover how to get around in an African context.

A group of us went to the Tetteh Quarshie art market via two Ubers. Unlike in the US where Uber drivers seem to lease richer vehicles than they should, Ghanians seem to be more realistic about what vehicle they will drive in. It took about 30 minutes to get from Labadi to the art market, but the drive was a good look at the city. I saw a perhaps vacant Willis Towers Watson building sporting the 2017 post-merger logo. So maybe it was still in use? The last Google review was from 6 years ago. And there is the possibility the building has nothing to do with the American company.

The roofs of almost all the building in the city were corrugated iron, a material I know little about, but is apparently the go to for shelters of all sizes and costs. The church roof was iron, the shack, the barber, the fancy restaurant, all corrugated iron. Some houses had large rocks sitting on the roofs providing additional weight to the slices of metal perched conspicuously over a leak.

They say the city proper of Accra has 2.8 million people and the region has 5.4 million. But the traffic was none too bad, except at night. Then it was very slow going. The opposite of, say, the 270 belt in St. Louis which is jammed before and after work (Lord, make haste to send congestion pricing!). Why are there major traffic jams at night? It only took me a minute to unravel the mystery. During the day maneuvering around pot holes is easy – at night very difficult. So night traffic is perpetually in molasses. Now while my urbanist friends will talk about the need for bike lanes, public transit, and improved walkability, the real issue is road quality. Throughput. There is plenty of transit available. Vehicle ownership is clearly not necessary to get around in Accra, but if you want to fix congestion and reduce pollution, repair the roads.

When we got to Tetteh Quarshie I was determined to hurl myself into the arts of the market. It was a single covered basilica with shops on either side. Some people were makers but most were resellers. The shops were frequently the size of a dining room, lined with shelves, art, knickknacks, doodads, and a man or woman strongly encouraging you to come in for a look. “Sir, Look! What do you like? Sir, come in!” Some were more insistent than others.

I had some people show me some art so that I could get a sense of what the motifs were, what was common and what was uncommon. I found an old seamstress putting together dresses, and knowing that my daughter was likely bigger than a daughter of the same age in Accra, tried to find a dress that seemed the right size. She insisted that the one I was interested in would fit her, but I wasn’t so sure it would be big enough to grow into, but merely fit for the month. We went back and forth on price as her radio played an English language political commentary on the spiritual dimension of Ghana’s woes. She was mildly disappointed, but we settled. She tempted me to buy something for my wife. But I told her such a venture was too risky.

Sam E. and I found a friendly gregarious shopkeeper and asked her how to negotiate prices. She was a special type, because the normal procedure is you ask how much, and they make a starting bid. It is rude for the buyer to make the starting bid. Nonetheless, this giddy gal was happy for Sam to make the starting bid. And he shook and trembled and exclaimed he had no idea what makes sense to offer. She reassured him, Say what you think, and if I don’t like it I’ll say no. This led into a discussion about the game theory of prices. He’s afraid of overpaying, and he doesn’t know what prices make sense. Then we started talking in hypotheticals, if I were to offer 50 Ceti for this, what would you say? Hypotheticals made it easier for us Western boys to get in the swing of things. Sam made an offer and she immediately accepted, and he told her that that indicates he should have offered lower. She denied it! But he reasserted the veracity of auction theory.

When I returned to the market after a break, my crowd was gone. I went and talked with the shopkeeper at the entrance, and tried to buy some knickknacks for home. I won some respect for having eaten goat fu fu, which indeed was good. We went back and forth on price and meanwhile I pleaded ignorance about the relative values of things. So I got her to discuss expected prices of art (which she didn’t carry), taxis, and so on. Part of that was so that I could budget my limited funds, and part of it was so that she could figure out what price she could offer me for her wooden turtles, and I could start calculating the value of labor. Nonetheless, she was older and more experienced and pulled a couple of slight exaggerations on me in the course of our friendly discussion. For example, she knows what she pays for a taxi, but didn’t want to be fully honest about what price I am going to get offered, which was about 2x that.

She has the best location in the mall, so I asked if she has to pay extra to get such a good spot. She said no, everyone pays the same for their lease. I was visibly shocked. But you have the best spot! I purchased my turtle, and she gave me instructions on where to go to find a taxi. She also said if I wanted the real experience, I would ride in one of the 12 passenger buses that shlep people around and always have a 17 year old boy hanging out the window hooting and hollering. I wanted to do that eventually, but never had the chance to spend 3 hours getting lost in Accra, which is what I would budget for such experiences.

Instead I found a taxi, and that guy dug in on a price that was almost 2x the standard street price. I negotiated him down 15% since I thought it was a 30 minute drive to Labadi, because that’s how long our Uber took. Apparently our Uber was as incompetent, as the taxi said they are, because it was only ten minutes back to Labadi.

Why do all African independence leaders believe in collectivized industry and state run enterprises and import and export tariffs and all these other terrible economic policies? The answer I was given over and over again at the conference was that Anglo economics and Anglo politics were not considered separable. If you are rebelling against colonialism, by necessity you are rebelling against capitalism, there was no other way to see it. This really bothered me. How is that possible? A 1:1 correlation?

The deeper explanation which I am significantly more satisfied with is that price theory and what today I would consider standard supply and demand economic analysis was also not readily available. Although Hayek existed, the Chicago school was still young, the Solow Model and Schumpeterian growth were undertheorized and not yet ubiquitous insights (of course, even today one of our Nobel Prize winners is far more confident in strong industrial policy, “rethinking capitalism”, that Urho Kekkonen’s education reforms have a lesson for the US, and that big firms should have to share their data than I would be). Good arguments for bog standard capitalism were just thin on the ground through most of the 20th century, and the fact that it works was less a testament to its intellectual foundations than to the practical outworkings of common law and democracy plus property rights.

Towards the end of the trip, a small group of us went, of course, to Eric’s coffin shop! It was a short walk on foot down the beach. Eric makes the amazing fantasy coffins. You can be buried in a fast fish, dear reader as Herman Melville would wish it, or a loose fish, should you desire. Or a chicken in memoriam of your mother’s broth. Whether airliner or Nike shoe, Eric has the coffin for you. They are simple pine boxes and competitively priced. The shop was merely a shed with chain link. No proper display, too few commemorative items for sale. The parking was not good and the signage was nondescript. Eric is a simple, humble guy. He’s done expos in Paris, been featured in the Guardian, yet even some small adjustments could increase his profits. It would make sense to expand the business if he were interested.

I think Ghana is like this generally. Some small expenditures of 10k to 100k, and the long-run rate of return would be quite good, not to mention the value of increased economic activity and moving up the value chain. Of course, the forces of corruption are hard to contend with. But where there’s a will… there’s at least a cleaner beach.

Ghana was my first contact with hunger. Although, it was a very pleasant place, it was also evident that some people were smaller than they otherwise would be because of malnutrition. And only after I left did I realize that the doodad sellers, the women balancing bowls of bottles and snacks on their heads, including that guy late at night selling some purple ichor out of a plastic bottle, were in fact beggars in an equilibrium. Hence when one of our taxi drivers bought a bottle of water, it was semi-charitable purchase of convenience.

And that particular taxi driver had the best coup car. Racing red with a green racing stripe, a faux animal pelt carpet on his dashboard, a necklace and several charging cables drooping vinelike from his rearview mirror, a giant crack across the windshield, and racing car seat covers in green and red. He had the stuff of funk.

The Conference itself was wonderful. The organizers did a good job mixing freedom and control as the non-Africans can be trusted no more than Marcus Brody to not get lost. If you wanted to explore on your own you could, but at no point did you need to.

We visited Christiansborg Castle (isn’t that redundant?) and there the office of two-time coup leader, Jerry Rawlings. Sadly the castle is in disrepair, and the tourism board seems to not care about or take any professional pride in it. Another missed opportunity.

The tomb of Nkrumah, which is truly a stunningly beautiful monument to the independence leader would fill me with patriotism, if I were a Nkrumah fan. We had a conversation about if you could give Nkrumah advice what would it be? One answer: wait 20 years. Independence isn’t as good as you think it will be.

The conference sessions were quite good. Finally got to meet my friend Luke Olayemi in person. He ran one session on developing new concepts for describing internet social life, which I thought was very fun. And I want to see more ideas from him.

We had a session on U.S. – Africa relations. In the wake of major US aid cuts, emotions were complicated by the feeling of great frustration with African governments. If it were solely a matter of the U.S. refusing aid, that would be one thing, but the incompetence of the government means they lack the capacity to react usefully to a shortfall in medical aid. And so there was spirited disagreement about how to think about the US – Africa relationship, and what to hope for.

I met a nuclear medicine doctor from Botswana who is opening up a clinic. He can confirm there are more cows than people in Botswana; he owns 3. I noticed the pan-African comraderie was quite strong. People talked about other African countries the way we talk about other US states. This made me quite optimistic for future economic and political unions arising. I asked some of the ladies which country has the best men for romance and marriage. The answer: for romance Nigeria, but for marriage Uganda. A Nigerian later responded that female view is because Nigerian women have trained Nigerian men in the art of excessive and conspicuous expenditure on their girlfriends.

Jan Grzymski, leader of 89School, a program on Poland’s post-soviet liberalization showed off his political science board game How to Win Brexit. We did a mini-session, where Rebecca Lowe and Rasheed Griffith blasted me (Donald Tusk) into the smallest of smithereens with their much more serious and deep knowledge of the EU.

I recruited Sam Enright at noon to help me measure the sunlight so that I could calculate the relative latitude of St. Louis and Accra myself. I was off by a couple of degrees, but the measurements were done two weeks apart. It wasn’t bad for some slapdash measurements.

I enjoyed talking to Samukai about Liberian census tracts, David Perell about art, Rebecca Lowe about philosophy and novels, and several of the younger crowd who are working on academic competition prep in Kenya, Nigeria, and a few other places. Joshua Walcott and I went several rounds on religion and morality. Duncan Mcclements and I went many rounds on economic development and FDI. Lorenzo talked about building the tourism industry in Belize, Lamin on building an ambulance network in Gambia.

Andy Matuschak and I enjoyed a lively dinner conversation about Great Books and 20th century learning and possibility of diminishing returns.

Rasheed nudged me to work on Spanish more and get involved in politics. Advice I have taken.

Every EV conference has a takeaway line. This conference I felt the message was “good governance is hard to find.”

Retrospectively, I wish I had offered a session on what Classics has to offer Africa, building off the experience of Malawi, and discussing the origins of good governance in the classical world and soliciting for African examples.

I would like to tarry and indulge in divulging every insight and experience in Ghana, because to write about one’s travels is to travel twice.


In October, Sam Enright pulled off a great coup at the University of Chicago with his conference on Milton Friedman. We met at the Quadrangle Club around a large polished wood table, in a secluded academic board room, served fresh water by the pitcher. The type of place where one could plan all sorts of thing… but not secure enough to plan too much global disruption: it’s not enough in plain sight!

Since it was my first visit to the beautiful University of Chicago, I was able to take time to wander early in the morning. I drove into the city from the west and as the sun rose over downtown I listened to Tyler Cowen’s tour of choral music with Rick Rubin. That was such treat, Monteverdi and Shaw as the sun rose up behind the shoulders of the iconic Willis Tower.

When I got to campus parking was easy and the journey was light.

We started with a group in coffee shop and immediately got into full geek mode.

Kadambari Shah started off the conference with a session on Milton Friedman in India, which was great for its parallels to Milton in Chile.

Agnes Callard and Rebecca Lowe brought philosophical heat and burned away some of Milton’s superficial philosophizing. Rebecca impaled Milton’s distinction between political and economic systems when discussing capitalism and socialism, while Agnes scattered three handfuls of dust on Milton’s logical consistency in “The Moral Obligation of Business is to Maximize Profit”. Both certainly depressed any claim Milton could make to being a logically consistent philosopher.

Robin Hanson presented on Milton Friedman on mechanism design, and mostly focused on explaining the deeply limited case for government intervention in alleged market failures. This discussion was also helped along by some quick insight from the extremely sharp Anup Malani.

(Anup by the way once again excoriated my argument that hybrid education provides economic savings. This got us into the timely argument about Baumol and whether education services can actually experience new efficiencies. Then, when I made an argumentative gaffe concerning total cost, he pounced like a tiger, lithe and deadly, and ended my argument. It was a glorious massacre. I gathered up my entrails a day later and reformulated into something he could accept.)

Sam E. was saddled with Milton Friedman on Monetary Theory. Despite the monumental task, a task he shook from his remit in vain, Sam did a great job, and started with a statement that very much compelled my interest. He said that he loves the way Milton’s Monetary History of the United States is written. That it is a good causal history, and he wondered why there are not more like it.

I have a whole list of books that fit my preferred style of historical writing which I will be sending him shortly.

We had good lunch conversation over the standard questions of global monoculture and cultural churn. I am more optimistic than many others, but probably because I spend most of my time in a small community that is intellectually stimulating and has a high birth rate. I don’t feel the stultifying effects of the academic landscape that my peers who teach do.

My own presentation on the economic history of Chile went very well despite the late hour and the growing exhaustion of the participants.


The best podcasts this year were:

Statecraft by Santi Ruiz. Santi Ruiz interviews excellent researchers and practitioners of everyday governance. Great background if you want get involved in civics at any level.

Marginal Revolution Podcast – Tyler and Alex getting back to just talking economics. I really like it.

Dwarkesh Podcast – Sarah Paine lectures on Russia and China from the Naval War College.

Best films I watched this year were:

A Touch of Sin (2013) Chinese film about sin that is a series of vignettes. Some of which pretty were tough to watch. Seriously good film though.

Paths of Glory (1957) Stanley Kubrick film on a WWI court martial. Riveting meditation on the hell of war and the injustice of scapegoating.

Live Die Repeat (2014) Tom Cruise. A riveting and interesting action film.

Through the Olive Trees (1994) Kiarostami. Finally finished the Koker Trilogy. It was a really lovely film, and I am such a sucker for this type of Umerto-Eco elegant conceit of nested realities. Kiarostami is like a Renaissance courante between realism and a protagonist’s incredible persistence for love.

But the best cinema experience was renting out a theater and having a bunch of my friends and the St. John Paul II crowd watch the French film Of God’s and Men (2010). That indeed was a great experience. We had about 50 attendees. Thank you Robby for collaborating on this and taking care of technical aspects.


I taught Chad Kim’s new book Primer on Ecclesiastical Latin to my Latin students this year. It is the best in the genre of ecclesiastical Latin textbooks. The layout of the book is straightforward and made to pair well with students who have taken or are going through Lingua Latina (this does not apply to my students), but I appreciate the grammatical lineup.

Good introductory Latin textbooks provide limited and essential vocabulary that prepares students for reading particular authentic texts. When it comes to preparing students for ecclesiastical and medieval readings, especially scripture and St. Augustine, this book is head and shoulders the best in the business. It is also complete enough to be useful for self-study.

In books, I thought it was a thin year for me. I read a lot, but not a ton that really rocked.

Middlemarch by George Eliot – if you know, you know. I started it before the Middlemarch craze seized the world and finished after the wave had passed: worthy though it is of eternal hype.

I read a lot of Leibniz in 2025. Maria Rosa Antognozza’s biography is the secondary source to read. Maria sadly passed away before I got to talk to her. There are a million did-you-knows one could offer about Leibniz, but a recent one was that he wrote three papers on mortality tables and life insurance. And naturally the reason the royal we are interested in Leibniz is because of the style of intellectual life he lived – both at the cutting of philosophy, mathematics, and natural philosophy and steeped in the Aristotelian and Lutheran traditions – both concerned with finding new angles on traditional intellectual problems and determined to break out into new fields – a role model for what verve looks like.

And in academic writing, I found great interest in Edna Ullman-Margalit and Richard Posner (the Pos!) and various other law and economics writing.


Music was a tragic year. My favorite radio station 88.1 KDHX after two years of internal dissensions and infighting gave up the ghost. The station was my number one way of being exposed to new music in folk, alt-rock, “world music”, and really any genre except classical. The loss has caused me to be more intentional. I have been prowling archive.org for old KDHX playlists. I have turned up two awesome albums from 2020.

Music of the Sani by Manhu. Rural Yi music from southern China. Super delightful. Only a handful of views on YouTube.

Kompromat by I LIKE TRAINS. Alt-rock eery vibes with lyrics written entirely in cliche and idiomatic expressions.

I have been making playlists to atone to the muses for my dereliction of responsibility in discovering new music and cultivating wanderlust.
December Playlist.
January Playlist.


Karlsson Goals:
Henrik Karlsson gave me the idea to send myself check-in emails on a three month delay to gauge my progress and breakdown long term goals into intermediate steps. It has been a useful exercise, because three months is a long enough time span to show a good sized delta between revealed and considered preferences.

Some goals for 2026:

  • Find some people who want to take me to China (or really anywhere in Asia). I am always willing to trade lectures, research, and struggle sessions for travel .
  • Run a mini-conference on the poetry and literary criticism of T.S. Eliot.
  • Build and run another logic tournament
  • Improve St. Louis County zoning regulation
  • Foster my local collective of artists and architects

Notes on The Drama of Chilean Economic History

My handmade timeline. I didn't even try to fix my handwriting. Make a pretty version and send it to me please.

Wrath-Kindled Gentlemen

In 1975 Michel Foucault told a left-wing activist “Chile’s tragedy is not the result of the Chilean people’s failure, but the result of the serious mistakes in the monstrous responsibility of you, Marxists.”

Two years earlier on July 29th, 1973, the Second Armored Regiment of Chile rolled six tanks and several trucks into downtown Santiago towards the presidential palace to overthrow the government. Soon a host of other military units would join them to bring down the socialist government of Salvador Allende, which had taken a wrecking ball to the nation’s already precarious financial stability. The other military units did come, but not to join them; those units that put down the coup and restored democratic order were led by none other than Augusto Pinochet.

44 days later on September 11, 1973 that same general, now commander-in-chief Augusto Pinochet, would himself be leading the coup against the government. What could cause such a shift? Was it merely the insubordination of the Second Armored Officers? Or did something change between July and September? I see several reasons that could explain his shift beyond the obvious.

Firstly, the government elected in 1970 had taken farms, factories, and the world’s largest copper mine from the hands of private owners without compensation. They took direct control of nitrate, telecom companies, banking, insurance companies, “monopolistic” manufacturing, and foreign trade. The unions would go on strike at a company and the government would declare the company distressed and seize control. The dubious legality and overt ideological motivations of the government made the military uncomfortable.

Chilean firms with US financial support had tried to prevent the Marxist government from taking office in 1970. But the only result was murderous anti-communists got as far as killing a General whom they tried to kidnap. Other attempts at stopping the transition of power through the legitimate political means failed, but together the violence and attempted political maneuvers had reinforced the tragic revolutionary/counterrevolutionary dynamic of the Cold War. The Allende government tightened its grip and clenched its teeth to bear down on their ruinous agenda.

Secondly, the economy under the Finance Minister and union leader Américo Zorilla, a man with a high school degree and no economics training, was in a tailspin. Inflation had passed 300%. Foreign investment disappeared. Exports plummeted. Fernando Flores took control of the Finance Ministry in 1972, inflation hit 500+%. The paychecks of the military were at stake as well. Even in 1969 during the prior government, some soldiers led a demonstration about low pay. Everyone was striking. Doctors were striking. Miners were striking. Even the domestic workers were striking.

Thirdly, sheer inevitability. There had already been one military coup attempt by lower officers (two if you count some abandoned 1970 plans). Now on August 22nd, the lower chamber of congress acknowledged that the military and government were on a collision course. They sided with the military. In that August 22nd legislation, the lower house outlined the abuses of the Allende government and voted 81- 47 that military “presence must be directed toward the full restoration of constitutional rule and of the rule of the laws of democratic coexistence, which is indispensable to guaranteeing Chile’s institutional stability, civil peace, security, and development” and thus it “is their duty to put an immediate end to all situations herein referred to that breach the Constitution and the laws of the land with the goal of redirecting government activity toward the path of Law and ensuring the constitutional order of our Nation and the essential underpinnings of democratic coexistence among Chileans.”

Sounds like permission to do a coup.

A few weeks earlier towards the beginning of August, Allende appointed the Army’s General Pinochet to commander-in-chief of the armed forces after the previous commander resigned. According to one of Salvador Allende’s biographers, Victor Figueroa Clark, the coup was a matter not of if, but when. The bloody pendulum of military usurpation was already swinging down to strike its blow against the incompetent regime. The only question for Pinochet was whether he would align with this inexorable force.

In the darkness of morning of September 11th the coup was officially launched. The Navy returned to port during a military exercise. By mid-morning, the government understood that a full scale coup was in effect. Allende tried to call Pinochet multiple times to come save the government from the mutinous navy. “Poor Augusto, he must be under arrest,” Allende is reported as saying. Allende learned soon after who the poor man must be. It was not Pinochet.

Although he refused to surrender or to go into exile, Allende made a final radio speech to his comrades and friends and well-wishers around the world and bade adieu. In several ways, revolutionary socialism died by its own hand. Military dictatorship and the secret police followed.


Such drama demands a screenplay.

Out of three top hits for YouTube documentaries, not one mentions the state of the economy, nor the congressional resolution (of debatable legality, but interesting and important nonetheless!), nor the prior coup attempt. In one, Cambridge’s Nicholas O’Shaughnessy simply asserts that Allende’s policies were “no different from the social welfare policies of northern European nations.” Does that hold up to scrutiny? Ubiquitous price controls do not a successful Sweden make. One excellent audio documentary series, The Santiago Boys, never gives the impression that Allende’s own policies were to blame for the economic tailspin. It’s always Nixon, Kissinger, and ITT (International Telephone & Telegraph) or the vague and unjustified ideological animosity of of the military establishment and “capitalists” towards Allende.

Historical memory has settled on a misleading hagiography. The drama is better than that! It’s a Shakespearean drama: Richard II and Henry IV. We have Allende’s radical quixotic socialism with dire consequences for economy and democracy – as well as Pinochet’s sudden betrayal and violent political oppression combined with the eventual turn towards economic freedom.

Mixed emotions of catharsis and woe, of relief and horror, of wonder and awe would be much more appropriate reactions to the political degradation and economic history of Chile.

John Cochrane is licking his lips right now.
When your inflation chart is a log-scale something has gone seriously wrong.
How often does a regime's abuse record actually look like this?

The Chile Project

How did a dictator in Latin America wind up deploying the economic reforms of a Margaret Thatcher four years before she came to be prime minister?

It goes back to the University of Chicago, which trained Chilean economists as part of a program called “The Chile Project.” This government-funded project launched in 1955 was meant to provide aid to Chile. George Shultz one of the leaders of the program told the US Government that he didn’t know how to run an aid program. But he knew how to teach economics.

An agreement was negotiated with the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile (Católica) for graduate students to come to Chicago to learn economics. In exchange the students would teach at Católica for at least two years. Chicago Economics Department Chair Theodore Schultz and economist Arnold Harberger ran the program.

The Chicago Boys, as they are called, were a collection of the Chilean students who would modernize the economics department at Católica. They replaced such horrors as a capstone class in Mercería in which students would learn to identify cloths by touch so as to impose the correct tariff on them with more becoming courses on price theory, exchange rate equilibria, contract theory.

The students matriculating into Chicago were not particularly ready for the modern economics graduate curriculum and took mid-level undergraduate courses as well. There they read the first eight chapters of Alfred Marshall’s Introduction to Economics as well as Penny Capitalism: A Guatemalan Indian Economy by Sol Tax and the labor market work by Chile program director H. Gregg Lewis.

Back in Chile these students turned into demanding professors. Sergio De Castro, Emilio Sanfuentes, and others taught and wrote and researched at Católica. In 1963 they founded a research journal Cuadernos de Economía Notebooks on Economy. Pablo Baraona and Ricardo Ffrench-Davis were the editors.

In 1965, a think tank, Centro de Estudios de Sociales y Economía sprung up. Emilio Sanfuentes took over the economics wing of the think tank. The think tank was promoted by Augustín Edwards who also owned the largest newspaper El Mercurio which opened up a column on finance and economics. There popular versions of economic arguments could make a public play. In a three year period (1967-1970) the Chicago Boys and allies pumped 170 articles into the market friendly El Mercurio, putting their ideas into the arena of praise and ridicule and denigration.

El Mercurio was one of a small handful of media organizations that continued to get an additional subsidy via the United States’ CIA which feared, just as the newspaper’s owner did, a wave of Cuban-like revolutions sweeping Latin America.

During the 1970 presidential campaign a few of the Chicago Boys were asked to draft an economic proposal for the Jorge Alessandri campaign. Allegedly, the proposals were so radical in the eyes of the industrialist that he exclaimed, “Get those crazy men out of here; and make sure they never come back.” Nonetheless, the practice of writing a policy brief would be put to good use.


“Cybernetic Socialism”

Meanwhile in Allende’s government expropriation of businesses, massive state control of prices, and expansive social spending was supposed to bring about a new Republic of “endless wine and empanadas.” It was not working so well. The economy tanked (stats!). What to do?

Allende’s government was drowning in the struggles of owning the economy. If only there was some system for dynamically allocating goods and efforts under conditions of scarcity. Discover bottlenecks, push out productive possibilities frontier… It sounds like a job for the budding field of cybernetics! They called up British cybernetic consultant Stafford Beer of “the purpose of a system is what it does” fame. Stafford Beer would build the system that would save not only the economy but Allende, socialism, and the future of civilization: “cybersyn,” a dream of cybernetic socialism

Even today the romance hasn’t worn off. Evgeny Morozov writes “The Santiago Boys… try to wrestle control over technology from multinationals and intelligence agencies and use it to create a more egalitarian economy.” But narrative framing only goes so far. What is really needed to be wooed by the forces of cybernetic socialism is the wonderful mock-up of the economic control room.

It’s the Jedi council for philosopher-kings. Nous sommes l’État.

Thanks to the invitation of economist Fernando Flores, Stafford Beer comes to Chile and will save the day. First stop: the center for economic planning, Ministeria Economia. There he wants to learn what models are being used to set prices. Actually, there are no models. Businesses propose a new price, the ministry approves a smaller mark up, and they go back and forth like that. Sometimes files are “misplaced”, or expedited, or easily approved, or given special scrutiny. Depends of course on favors. Beer wants to know how general equilibrium effects are calculated. Well, they aren’t.

A mathematician in the ministry offers to be helpful. We have a computer which can calculate cross-sector supply requirements. “How many industries are included in the model?” Beer asks. The young mathematician says something like 50 or 15. The translator clarifies that it is 15. Beer, “But, my friend, you really want to determine true, social equilibrium pricing for 3,000 goods with a 15 sector input-output matrix?”

Alas, before the dream of cybernetic socialism could be realized (or even wrestle down the union leaders who objected to quantification of worker ops) Cybersyn was destroyed along with the Allende government. It had connected 12 telex machines to the main hub of a 64kb memory IBM 360 Model 50. Such rigs existed already around the world. But what made this one distinct is not that it was socialists pre-empting the Internet, but rather that it was in the service of a centralized economy. They succeeded in mapping the operations of a handful of factories. The knowledge problem went uncracked.


Origins of New Economic Policy

In December 1972 a retired Navy Officer Roberto Kelly and Admiral Toribio met and agreed that if the government was going to be toppled the military needed an economic plan so that they could get out of the economic mess. Kelly knew Emilio Sanfuentes at the Centro de Estudias Sociales y Economia would be right for the job. He approached Sanfuentes and requested a report.

Eleven economists got to work on a type of confidential white paper. 9 had Masters’ degrees in Economics from the University of Chicago, one from Harvard, one from Católica. Sanfuentes was the go between with the client, who was the Navy, and Sergio de Castro was main editor of the project.

The final document is known to history as El Ladrillo THE BRICK because it was so thick. Several inches, they said. The original name of the daring policy proposal was the very unobtrusive Programa de desarollo economico, A Program for Economic Development. I was personally disappointed to discover that the foundational document of Chilean economics only had 200 pages. For an Admiral in the Navy, though, that might be an intimidating amount: a veritable brick.

El Ladrillo has all the marks of a market based set of policy proposals written by people who were accustomed to integrating Catholic social teaching and motivations. And it came naturally. It was written by members from the Pontifical Catholic University who thought of economics as a moral science. For example, when discussing the difficulty of disbursing poverty relief, they acknowledge that in a poor country fact checking eligibility in advance will be very difficult and very expensive. But they reasoned that the optimal amount of fraud is not zero. It is preferable to have some fraud if it ensures that the poorest citizens of Chile are “able to live lives with some degree of dignity.”

The economists did not conceive or write about their project as a type of neoliberalism. At the time the term ‘neoliberalism’ was associated with German reforms under Adenauer. Instead they saw the Chicago project as a type of subsidiarity, the concept in mainly Catholic political theory that decisions should be made at the lowest possible level to solve problems. The decentralization of free markets naturally does this by allowing firms and decision-making to discover the right size for their purposes.

At the same time, the proposals found in El Ladrillo are the types of policies one would expect from modern economists taught by Gary Becker, Milton Friedman, and Arnold Harberger: tariff reduction, removing subsidies and government protections of industries, removing all price controls, decreasing fiscal spending, making the central bank independent, allowing the currency to float. The Chicago Boys had taught Marshall’s Principles and Friedman’s Price Theory at Católica. Inevitably those influences were a lion’s share.

Other specific influences include Albert Hirschmann, who had done a 1963 study on the history of Chilean inflation, and Al Harberger, who had done research on Chilean inflation dynamics.

Although not finished in the promised 90 days, the document was completed in time for the coup.

The slope of the Democracy curve is the 6 hours it took to establish a dictatorship.

Above is a Yearly Property Rights scale based on a 1-10 Index, sc. Rodrigo, Saravia 2009.

Above is an index of access to clean, unlaundered money on a 1-10 Index, sc. Rodrigo, Saravia 2009.

Three days after the coup Sergio de Castro was quickly appointed to the government as senior advisor to the military officer in charge of the economy, General Rodolfo Gonzalez. Gonzalez showed De Castro one of the 25 printed copies of The Brick and said implement this. In fact, De Castro knew the document well already; he had written it.

To fight inflation at almost 700% de Castro removed price controls on as many goods as the military would allow. (Always amazing how many goods become national security related, when you have the power to control their flow…) Nonetheless, thousands of goods started to have market floating prices. A cooking oil business shows up to de Castro’s office and requests a price increase on oil. They provide a well-prepared document showing the the need for a price increase. De Castro responds. “I don’t need to see this. Set the price to whatever you want.” The business leaders leave insulted.

They return a week later. “I don’t need to see it. Truly. Set the price to whatever you want. If you set it too high the oil won’t sell, if you set it too low, you’ll lose a lot of money.” The business leaders left confused.

They check in one last time. ‘Can we really set the price to whatever we want?’


Milton Friedman Speaks

Milton Friedman visited Chile three times, but it was his first visit that really mattered for him and for Chile.

If Fernando Flores tried to move the economy through the consultation of Stafford Beer, Rolf Lüders tried to do so through his famous invitation to his teacher Milton Friedman.

Milton Friedman had had some of the Chilean economists in classes, but mutual contact was not a big part of either of their lives. Though there was certainly indirect influence and much agreement between Friedman and the type of economic policies promoted by El Ladrillo (a document he didn’t know about), Friedman was not heavily involved with, nor in contact with, any of the Chilean economists except for Rolf. Nor did he serve an advisory role in any of their deliberations.

Nonetheless when he visited Chile for the first time in 1975, in my reading he had a big effect. Friedman along with Al Harberger met with Pinochet for 45 minutes. One condition of the meeting was Friedman wanted to be able to say whatever he wanted. Every interaction had the same drum beat. You need a price system, you need markets, in the current system there is massive waste because no one knows what to build and how much. People need freedom to choose their economic fates.

Friedman told Pinochet he needed to stop inflation through immediate fiscal austerity and that freeing finance, labor market, and prices was the only way to produce growth and reduce poverty.

Two days later, Friedman spoke to several hundred business people at an event organized by Rolf Lüders. He advocated the same immediate change of course in Chilean economy (end state owned enterprises, decrease tariff barriers) and then engaged in Q&A for over an hour. 22 questions were asked – some accusatory, some surprised.

And again he met with 200 military officers to tell them how to save their country. His drum continued to the same beat. End. Price. Controls. End them on Goods. On Labor. On Loans.

The Chicago Boys have gone out of their way to distance themselves from Milton Friedman as an influence and cause of their success. They were much closer to their friend and mentor Al Harberger. Nonetheless, based on the timeline of subsequent events, it seems that Friedman altered the political economy within Chile.

Within the military government there were two camps: the democratic leaning military leaders and the national security military leaders. The democratic leaning military leaders were more willing to release some power back to the private sector or the non-military public sector. The national security military leaders believed in a strong state that controlled many aspects of the economy and all of civil society, from universities to manufacturing, for national security reasons, of course.

Manuel Contreras, the director of national intelligence and architect behind assassinations abroad, domestic kidnappings, and frequent tortures at home, believed the Chicago boys were intellectual traitors to Chile. The true goal of these upstarts who studied abroad was to deliver Chilean industries into the hands of international actors in order to line their own pockets. By 1975 he had collected “thick files on the personal activities of each of them.”

The American ambassador in an internal memo noted that the main opposition to personal rights and just criminal proceedings in Chile was Contreras. Contreras’ own story of power ended in 1977 when Pinochet dismissed him for pulling too hard on the leash. The standard theory is that Contreras brought too many diplomatic headaches with his human rights abuses and permissionless assassination of Chileans abroad. Political oppression should be subtler.

After Friedman’s visit, military statists started to lose ground and the Chicago educated economists gained ground. Pinochet starting appointing private citizens to high cabinet posts, not merely to advisory ones.

Consider the following dates of Chicago Boys assuming senior roles in government. This first round of major hires and promotions were all after Milton’s 1975 visit. I take this as evidence of a “Milton effect.”

Sergio De Castro: Minister of Economy 1975-76, Minister of Finance 1976-82.
Pablo Baraona: President Banco de Chile 1975-76, Minister of Economy 1976-78
Sergio De la Cuadra: VP Banco De Chile 1977-81
Alvaro Bardon: President Banco de Chile 1977-81
Miguel Kast: Director of Planning 1978-81

When I look at this data my initial thought is to conceive Friedman as a kind of voice of reason for the military government. Like a CEO who wants to change the org chart and operational structure but first wants someone from McKinsey to tell him to do it, Pinochet and his military apparatus needed the little push from this famous outsider to hand over the keys to economic reform to Sergio de Castro and his American educated colleagues. An outside voice can create permission and coordination within any regime.

It is not that Friedman and the Chicago boys coordinated their actions, rather, they both pushed in the same direction. Nor was Friedman the godfather of the reforms or the secret counselor to the Chicago boys. His influence is the more diffuse – like that of a major brick layer in the grand edifice, the edifice of monetarist economics and promotion of the price system view of the world. Milton was an architect of an edifice which the Católica academic economists also worked on and eventually put into practice.

Friedman’s Reward

Friedman’s reward for his candid advice to the Chilean people was protests at all his public appearances, an interruption at the Nobel Prize ceremony, and a general vitriol that he would visit this particular dictator.

At the Nobel Prize ceremony a young activist was able to use his father’s ticket to con a seat. Then he waited for a dramatic moment of silence after the introduction of Milton Friedman to King of Sweden. He stood up with great gesticulation and shouted, “Down with Capitalism.”

Friedman reflected on those events 25 years later for a PBS interview in 2000 and had this to say:

 The Communists were determined to overthrow Pinochet. It was very important to them, because Allende’s regime, they thought, was going to bring a communist state in through regular political channels, not by revolution. And here, Pinochet overthrew that. They were determined to discredit Pinochet. As a result, they were going to discredit anybody who had anything to do with him. And in that connection, I was subject to abuse in the sense that there were large demonstrations against me at the Nobel ceremonies in Stockholm. I remember seeing the same faces in the crowd in a talk in Chicago and a talk in Santiago. And there was no doubt that there was a concerted effort to tar and feather me.

We know also that Friedman’s dealing with Chile were beneficent and nonpartisan. He refused honorary degrees from government run Chilean universities, stating that state involvement as his reason. Al Harberger vouches that Friedman stated over and over again his belief that decentralization of markets would undermine centralization in politics, including in his university speech “The Fragility of Freedom.” But there is some tension in this with what he said in Capitalism and Freedom. Autocrats may coexist with free markets for a time.

Furthermore he was directly helpful to one non-Chicago educated Chilean. Our cybernetics friend Fernando Flores, the Minister of Economics from the Allende government, had been in prison for three years and not allowed to leave the country. Friedman, never having met him, intervened on behalf of his freedom.

“Like many another friend of Chile, who is also a believer in human freedom and liberty, I have been greatly distressed by the restrictions on personal and human freedom in Chile that have been widely circulated in the West. . . . The immediate occasion for this letter is the case of a former Allende cabinet minister under detention in Chile, Fernando Flores Labra. . . . I have never met Mr. Flores personally and have had no direct contact with him. However, I have been led to inform myself about him. As I understand it, Fernando Flores is legally eligible for a US visa under US immigration laws, Stanford University has offered him a position in its Computer Science Department, and Chile has not granted him permission to leave the country.

“Freedom is indivisible. Greater economic freedom promotes and facilitates greater political freedom. But equally, greater political freedom promotes economic freedom and it contributes to economic progress and development.”

After Milton’s letter, Flores was released from prison and made his home at UC Santa Barbara. The Spanish language Wikipedia page credits Amnesty International and makes no reference to Friedman’s intervention.


1982 Financial Crisis

In 1982 the Latin American Debt crisis shook Central and South America. Chile was no different. What made the crisis especially bad for Chile was that they neither abolished the central bank and dollarized, nor maintained a floating rate. They pegged, and kept the same peg for two and half years. Why Sergio did this, I don’t know.

In the 60s he had written argumentative papers and engaged in great fracas in favor of a free floating rate. But now the currency is pegged and pinned and wriggling on the wall.

The banks borrowed dollars. They lent in pesos. The investments inflows decreased when oil dropped and copper dropped, so they borrowed more dollars as a bridge loan, until as commodity prices sunk the Andean skis went flying out from under them in an avalanche of bankruptcy, state bailouts, and unemployment.

Friedman had always been against a hard peg. And when the hard peg broke down it was not surprising to Milton that Chile was one of the countries greatly wounded by the crisis. Thus it was not Chicago school orthodoxy that made the 1982 crisis especially bad.

Al Harberger points out that although the Chilean decline was greater than the others, it’s rebound was also stronger.

The Chilean [crisis] was maybe deeper than the others for reasons of it having a large amount of debt to begin with and of this problem coinciding with a copper bust, but anyway, Chile led the continent in climbing out of this recession. It was the only debt-crisis country that got back to the pre-crisis levels of GDP before the end of the decade of the ’80s, so for most of the countries, it was the full decade that they called the “lost decade.” In Chile, it was the better part of it that was lost. But Chile was the first to come out. Chile came out growing at 5, 6 percent per year — and long after. You see, you can say that when you’re in a recovery period, you’re recovering lost ground, [and] it’s reasonable to think you’ll do that fast, but after you’ve recovered the lost ground and you’re going on, if you continue on the same or even increasing trajectory, that’s even more of a miracle. And that is all part of the Chilean picture.

GDP Growth


A Long-Expected Political Transition

In 1980 Pinochet’s government installed a new Constitution. But they held on firmly to the reins of power. Civil authority and citizen freedoms were weak at best.

Even in 1986 the Universities’ top level presidents and administrators were all military officers. Friedman wrote in protest to rector of the University of Chile, General Roberto Soto MacKenney.

“Friedman noted that he had received information that ‘suggests that the universities in Chile in serious danger of having their academic integrity and performance destroyed by the application of arbitrary and irresponsible force [by the military authorities],'” pg. 153.

The Pinochet regime imposed unfreedom.


After the 1982 crisis, Pinochet fired a bunch of people in economic management. He put in more old guard traditional import substitution economists. But when their policies failed to deliver a reduction to inflation and a return to employment, he went back to Católica and found the young guard of Chicago educated economists and put them in.

(I wonder about the internal process here.)

A second round of reforms followed: an independent central bank, privatization of the remaining government owned firms, and a slower paced reopening of the economy than the shock treatment of 1975. The political economy may have worked better because when Pinochet let go the direct reins of power through the referendum of 1988 the Christian Democratic party maintained and continued the basic reform program in 1990.

Pinochet left the presidency, but not power. He retained the position of commander-in-chief of army until 1998. When he went for back surgery in a London clinic in 1998 he was arrested while bedridden with extradition orders to go to Spain, creating an international incident, which is beyond the scope of my research. That satyr play will have to wait.

In 2002 Chile equaled Argentina in GDP per capita, and surpassed them clearly by 2018.


Lingering Questions

Remaining Questions I have are in buckets.

Technical questions:

  • How big a problem was the peg during the Latin American debt crisis. Panama, which doesn’t have a central bank, was punished severely anyway. The other Latin American countries with crawling pegs were trounced. The U.S. sported -1.8% GDP growth! So is there really anything Chile could have done?
  • In the 90s Chile put in place import holding rules on capital flows to make them park in the Central bank for a year. Is that a helpful move for preventing a repeat of 1982? Just because Stiglitz thinks so, doesn’t make him wrong.
  • When reading the history of Japanese Finance Minister Matsukata Masayoshi, I was struck by how he altered the tax collection system regime to benefit the fiscal situation, namely by cutting back delays and increasing enforcement. He was still able in effect to decrease the debt issuance of silver-backed debt from a government that didn’t want to cut military spending. What was tax collection and the fiscal history of the dictatorship?
  • Did Milton Friedman really sway the government officials or am I missing details about the regime which made the eventual promotion of civilians into ministries inevitable?
  • Were there Mistakes in the speed and sequencing of the policy changes?
  • There are constant arguments about the pension reforms in Chile. I’d like to know more about these (and other aspects of pension policy theory). The actuarial part of me is excited about this potentiality.
  • Were there meaningful differences between the Bolivian fight against hyperinflation and Chile’s policies?

Dictator Club Questions:

  • Did Spain’s slow liberalization make the politics of Chilean fast liberalization easier?
  • What did Pinochet think of all this economics stuff? I have read once that a Spanish finance minister kept wanting to ask Franco permission to change some large policy. And Franco just waved his hand and said something to effect of “just don’t get me involved.”
  • What did Pinochet do with his time?
  • Did Peronism affect Chile?
  • Did the Brazilian dictatorship affect Chile domestic strategy?
  • How did Allende’s government exercise power?
  • How much were Unidad Popular funded by outside sources?
  • How did Pinochet think? Is it a miracle that a military government allowed these reforms?
  • What percentage of time does inflation over 300% result in a coup?

Annotated Bibliography

Edwards, Sebastián. The Chile Project: The Story of the Chicago Boys and the Downfall of Neoliberalism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2023.
The lion’s share of my information came from this volume. The bibliography and endnotes were particularly instructive. Clearly the best book on the subject, especially for a serious general audience.

As part of my intellectual hygiene habits to avoid words that end in “-ISM” I’ve tried to be quite sparing in this article, Nonetheless “socialism” and “capitalism” rear their ugly heads. Similarly there’s no discussion of “neoliberalism” here, although Edwards’ book does an extended treatment of the topic.

Meiselas, Susan, ed. Chile from Within. Photographs by Chilean photographers, texts by Marco de la Parea and Ariel Dorfman. New York: Pantheon Books, 1991.
The photos from the military regime were powerful for evoking a sense of political oppression and the people who resisted it. But the book also talks about the abuelitas who resisted Allende and the abuelitas who resisted Pinochet (often the same!).

Piñera, José. “Salvador Allende’s Chile in Eleven Truths.” Archived at the Internet Archive. Accessed February 7, 2017.
.
God bless archive.org which preserves this excellent website by one of the honorary Chicago Boys. Through José’s website I was able to find the National Assembly’s condemnation of Allende.

De Castro, Sergio. El Ladrillo. Santiago: Centro de Estudios Públicos, 1992.
The original text of El Ladrillo. I haven’t read all of it yet due to my still plodding Spanish. But it is a tremendous framework document. Not nearly as economically technical as I expected. It’s more of a roadmap than a series of prewritten directives for different departments of the economy.

Silva, Carola Fuentes, dir. Chicago Boys. Documentary film. Chile, 2015.
Some good interview snippets, but I wish there was a lot more. It got me thinking about the political pressures and costs of working for military dictatorship and the long-term difficulty of maintaining a positive legacy. Sergio de Castro has had to “ignorance-wash” himself beyond credulity. But to do otherwise is suicidal not only to his reputation but also treasonous to his life’s work to provide good economic policy for Chile. I especially appreciated Ernesto Fontaine’s body language. His candor and “dgaf-iness” I found endearing.

Friedman, Milton, and Rose Friedman. Free to Choose. PBS documentary series. Episode 5, 1980.
This episode had a segment on Chile and included the protests against Friedman at the Nobel Prize ceremony. It was incredibly uncomfortable waiting for the young black-tie protestor to be escorted out.

Morozov, Evgeny. The Santiago Boys. Audio series, 2022.
This series tells the story of Allende’s economic attempt to make a new world free from capitalism. I found it full of good interview snippets, excellent production value, and masterful editorializing. Yet sometimes it was also one of the worst offenders under the banner of “things meant to make the reader think they know something when in fact they know little.” Nonetheless, it was a fun romp.

Whelan, James. Allende: Death of a Marxist Dream. Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 1981.
Features lots of interviews with military personnel and others from the coup days. I have barely dipped into it, but it seems to be a very valuable book. I got a much better sense of the scale of the near total public rejection of Allende’s government. And honestly it is just beautiful and excellent journalism.

Larroulet, Cristián, and Fernando Soto-Aguilar. Chile: Economic Freedom 1860–2007. Serie Informe Económico No. 197. Santiago: Libertad y Desarrollo, March 2009.

Caputo, Rodrigo, and Diego Saravia. “The History of Chile.” Working paper. Centre for Experimental Social Sciences, University of Oxford; Universidad de Santiago; Central Bank of Chile, 2021.

Freire, Danilo, John Meadowcroft, David Skarbek, and Eugenia Guerrero. Deaths and Disappearances in the Pinochet Regime: A New Dataset. Working paper, May 30, 2019.

Spanish language Wikipedia was also helpful for things it said and the things it did not say.


Thank you to Sam Enright and the Fitzwilliam for setting me on this quest. I believe this essay will prove one of most definitive outlines on these matters for the general reader — in spite my tone and tense switching and undoubtedly some errors I have made.

What We Will Become Has Not Yet Been Revealed

[This letter is part of the Little Letter Republic, a project whose purpose is to build community intellectual community.]

Dear Gavin,

I enjoyed your rumination on the difference between traditionalists and rationalists. As you know, these terms are so fuzzy, inexact, and frequently misleading. Yet for me, despite their vagueness, both referents remain deeply important. I don’t know how much I can add to your already well-vibed dichotomy, but perhaps somewhere in our separate approaches we can find a delta in our understanding out of which new insights might emerge.

Robinson Jeffers wrote: “The cold passion for truth hunts in no pack.”

And given that I’ve been on a deep Leibniz kick these past two months, I see him as a man with no pack, and thus relevant to our conversation. The reason is this: Leibniz models the rare ability to amalgamate traditional paradigmatic questions with modern lines of inquiry. He never stops seeing the old as useful, even when it is no longer correct. He can see what remains fruitful in a method even when large portions of doctrine prove inadequate to the task at hand. Yet, his love and recognition of the new does not yield to infatuation; he is constant and incessant critic as well as devotee. He is not afraid to posit replacements to the old or the new. I think it is precisely his ability to navigate multiple paradigms that yields his dozens (scores?) of right insights — insights on space relativity, binary arithmetic, the necessity of grounding metaphysics in more than mathematical objects, the consciousness of animals, to name but a few against the many currents of his times. Not only that, but Leibniz had the rage of youth — and you know how much I love the rage of youth. Who doesn’t want to solve all philosophical problems with a clear and distinct logical system built atop universally accessible intuitive primitives? I know I do.

And then there are his world-shaking quotes, like (to paraphrase): “I judge the man more worthy of esteem and honors who has cured a single disease than he who has found the area under a curve.” (Written before he himself did the latter.) Also, his mathematical explanations are actually lucid to me — a shocking feat for clarity. His letters display this same clarity of expression.

By my Fermi estimate, he wrote for four to five hours a day, every day of his life. And yet, no one is a real “Leibnizian” in the way that someone can be an Aristotelian, a Cartesian, or a Kantian.

On the one hand, I find this quite sad. How can someone who wrote ten times more than any of his contemporaries create such diffuse influence without founding a true school of thought? He didn’t cultivate disciples, teach formally, or publish didactic works. He didn’t build charisma. He just built content and followed his many methods. He developed methods that others took on and extended: a huge influencer through sheer quantity of insights and correspondence (nevertheless it never seems like he has the right correspondents).

Perhaps this is just as well. A Leibniz doesn’t need an “-ism” named after him. The key to rigorous and right thinking is using all tools at one’s disposal to understand the many facets of reality. Maybe Leibniz’s “hedgehog in a fox mech suit” approach to intellectual life is non-reproducible—or, as I sometimes worry, even anti-mimetic.

That's not a fox, it's a bunch of hedgehogs in a mech suit.

You’ve taught more workshops on rationality than I have. Is it teachable? I think so, but it is hard without good contextual questions. Tradition can be taught and can be lived, but can innovation and “the new life of the mind” be taught in quite the same way (though Matt Clancy has made me more bullish that useful innovation can be its own sort of tradition)? Nonetheless, only through a community of practice can one build the synthesis of approaches that you and I both want to see in the world.

In Maria Rosa Antognazza’s intellectual biography of Leibniz, I hear her philosopher groans: that Gottfried spent so much time on practical matters, on inconsequential Germanic politics, on his practical schemes, political projects, and writings on the esoterica of binary were distractions from his true calling—the development of the Monadology and his other dozen philosophical projects. The terrifying object here is the implicit assumption that the intellectual life is defined by the questions treated by academic philosophy. There is a real sense in her writing that he squandered his gifts as a philosopher by pursuing so many interests outside it. But is philosophy the only game in town?

I think Leibniz believed—or at least what I like to believe myself—is that philosophy is a way of life, a habit of mind, and a set of all sets of inquiry, not a distinct discipline. To make it into its own discipline is to turn it into a Glass Bead Game. The whole Great Books and Classics ecosystem might prepare some of the best Glass Bead Game players around—and I honor the game! But does it prepare one for discovery, action, and becoming one of those lights that supplies the beads for the game? For that, one needs practical wisdom, the art of rationality, applied history and economics, and of course, the philosophical disposition.

As I wrote recently, the classical quest for virtue is greatly complemented by modern tools, and the modern context is sufficiently different that the intellectual demands of prudence and justice are much greater than before. An analogy that might resonate with the traditional ethicist is that of extraordinary medical care. In the Thomistic tradition of medical ethics, providing medical care is obligatory if it is ordinary, but not if it is extraordinary — and the difference between ordinary and extraordinary is circumstantial. The generic heart pill we might have a moral duty to supply in the USA in 2025 was utterly beyond society’s capacity in 1905. Moral duties are contextually realized, not imposed by synthetic a priori reasoning upon the universal kingdom of ends. In the same way, the demands of prudence and justice shift with context. Prudence and justice are more demanding now than in the past for the demands rise as our capacity does.

Thus I expect today’s great leaders to have a firm grasp of economics, probability, game theory, transaction costs, coordinating mechanisms, elasticity, and incidence, not to mention several fields of science, history, and philosophy. I think the standards simply must be higher.

Furthermore, the seduction of the world of ideas is that we might come to confuse the clear and distinct ideas of philosophers for the world itself. The most important things in history, and the most important things in our lives, are not necessarily those that are easily talked about in didactic treatises or rigorous formalizations. (And yet those rigorous formalizations come from somewhere.) They emerge from wading into the algae-filled pool of history and embodied, carbon-based stuff, and trying to pull out abstractions and generalizations and statistics and causal explanations that work.

So far I am in full agreement of temperament with you, and yet. And yet. And yet.

Perhaps there is a weird quirk here being underplayed, and that is the importance of being a bearer of a tradition. (This goes back to my writings on identity and politics). The iconoclast by temperament might not like the stodgy and inflexible bearers of a dead or dying intellectual tradition, yet it seems to me very terrible not to have them around. The majority of people will be establishment people by nature, preferring convention and authority, not desiring to exploit a good intellectual arbitrage or find contradictions in Torah or respond to thirteen objections to a proposition. So I think it is very important that the majority of education is about passing along the Burke-processed fundamentals with their priorities, paradoxes, and unanswered questions, but most of all that sincere belief in the study of authorities as a useful scaffold to knowledge of Divine things and human benefit. As a matter of temperament, I cherish exploration and think new tools and their development is necessary for a good and successful vita activa.

But as an empirical matter, we are not near the point of saturating our world enough with either the “traditionalist” Way of Wisdom or the “rationalist” Way of Calibrations approach to the intellectual life.

The Education of Gottfried Leibniz

[This letter is part of the Little Letter Republic, a project whose purpose is to build community intellectual community.]

Dear Henrik,

You likely are wondering about the education of Gottfried Leibniz.

But let’s start with a 17th century pedagogical theory called Ramism developed 100 years prior, a virus spreading throughout Protestant Central Europe. We might call it a form of reductionism and an aggressive simplification of the curriculum, curriculum requirements, of the categories in philosophy and metaphysics, and the promotion of new tabular methods for pedagogy that trade off exactitude and nuance for ease of use. It was wildly successful, influential, loathed, and hated, and achieved a semi victory, that lasts to this day.

Here’s what the Ramists believed.

There are two types of philosophers, those who make easy to recall dichotomies and those who don’t i.e. dastardly Aristotelians. Among those who make dichotomies there are the Ramists and the Semi-ramists. The Ramists require all things be organized into pedagogically satisfying charts and the Semi-ramists only require most things. There are two types of Ramists, the ones who emphasize the doctrines of Ramus and the ones who spend all their time attacking Aristotle, Plato, Cicero, and Quintillian for being too obtuse and poorly structured. For the Ramists there are two doctrines: 1) All knowledge is a form of dichotomous categorization. 2) Philosophy should be immediately evident and empirical. There are two types of philosophy: physics and logic. Physics should be based on math and simple observation. Logic should also be based on math and simple observation. Anything too complicated is likely not true, because true things are useful, and complicated things are not useful, and thus not true!

Leibniz was influenced by it greatly. Many later Ramists were interested in the mad quest to reduce ideas into primitive notions which could be combinatorially combined along with rules to create all possible ideas, like some mad Principia Mathematica or Peano Arithmetic for philosophy. Some post-Ramists were encyclopaedists looking to reconcile the sciences and philosophies of the day. What could be more useful than theological and political harmony in days torn by confessional, political, and philosophical divisions!

Leibniz went to an Orthodox Lutheran school in the very Orthodox Lutheran town of Leipzig in which the reading list was tightly curated for Lutheran Orthodoxy. At this school, he learned excellent Latin which was the language in which all of his writings, essays, and conversations had to take place. And as far as it went, it was solid. The secret sauce, though, was his father’s death when he was 8 years old. His father was a pastor and professor of theology and his library contained many books from the various confessions Reformed, Lutheran, and Catholic. The library was locked. A noble in town interceded on behalf of the young Gottfried to unlock this library and allow him free reign, despite the objections of the schoolmasters. Enter the autodidact.

Leibniz, however, was not solely a follower of this Ramist school of thought. He was extremely broad-minded – despite his parochial environment. Reading widely, he thought the various traditions could be reconciled. Everything from Aristotle and Aquinas to Philip Melanchthon and John Calvin. He read Hugo Grotius and Thomas Hobbes, the Jesuits and the Jansenists. If only we had the right alphabet of ideas, the right structure of thought, the right metaphysical axioms, then rational argument could undo the Gordian Knot of politics, religion, theology, and natural philosophy – all that had been thrown into great uncertainty in the 17th century.

Who knew that the inventor of the integral originally received his degrees in law? I didn’t!

Because he was completing his curriculum and dissertation so quickly, he finished his dissertation for his bachelor’s degree and was almost immediately ready to be finished with his master’s degree. However, the older students in the program worked hard to block special permission for Leibniz to be allowed to graduate early. Annoyed by his institution’s inability to adapt to his needs, he transferred to the University of Jena, where he almost immediately submitted his master’s degree thesis for jurisprudence.

One method of his study was to take a topic or disputed question and read across several traditions upon that question, taking notes. There are groups that he met at the University of Jena in which six students would read together. Each would read different authors on the same topic, and they would meet together to share the diversity of views, thus enabling a comparative approach to natural philosophy and legal studies.

Leibniz’s masters degree dissertation De Casis Perplexis in Iure offers a great example of how the simplified branching style of Ramus can be combined with erudition and novel thinking, especially through the use of comparison across texts. In terms of method, this would require creating notebooks by topic which collect references to deployed on that topic later. As scholars and writers struggle to organize their notes and reading into sensible systems for recall, the world after Ramus worked hard to develop these systems for keeping track. We take it for granted… yet how many of us have a truly good system?

Leibniz: An Intellectual Autobiography by Maria Rosa Antognazza
HOPWAG: Peter Adamson
De Casis Perplexis in Iure by Leibniz

Books Read January 2023

Jesuits A History by Markus Friedrich
The combination of a spiritual exercise and a practical cosmopolitan ministry is potentially very powerful, even without the vertical bureaucracy. In fact, if you believe the upside of hits far outweighs the downside of losses in your environment/sphere of activity then it definitely makes sense to downplay the need for centralized control. It is interesting to note that the order was not financially centralized. On the one hand that strongly reinforces the need for being enterprising and ingratiating oneself with local circumstances, and additionally it allows those successful at making rich powerful friends to go rogue. This seems like the type of structure that doesn’t actually help the vow of obedience. I don’t know. The incentive structure seems iffy. Better off probably doing just financial dependence and lessening other types of controls. That’s the inner economist speaking.
Maybe the inner sociologist will reply that the average situation will not tend to these extremes of rogue behavior because spiritual formation and social pressure will keep the members more aligned than financial matters will. The history seems mixed at best. Maybe the benefits of having large numbers of the order capable of and attentive to administration (including financial administration) outweighs the risk of a few rogue agents. As a result of the incentives, perhaps one will have a much deeper pool of administrative talent to draw on. This could actually strengthen the bureaucratic ability of the order and its ability to assign members.

Catholic Art and Culture by E. I. Watkins. Offers a prophetic view on how spirituality will recover from the shock of modern science, modern war, and the success of reductionism. One weakness of the book is how Anglophone and parochial its scope is. Nonetheless, it has deep cultural richness for the regions it covers.

The Witness of Poetry by Czeslaw Milosz. Powerful visions of how the poetic imagination moves over time. There is a special focus here on the sources of an aesthetics of a closed versus an open future. He also has a fascinating account of how the culture of poets has moved since the 1860’s.

On Marriage and Family Life St. John Chrysostom, not as old-fashioned and backwards as one might think. Some useful advice contained and interesting arguments. Still better than most Christian marriage theology.

The Art of Doing Science and Engineering Richard Hamming. Always good.

The Beginning of Western Science by David Lindbergh. It is very helpful to have confirmation of things about which I have long wondered. For example, we all know that Erotosthenes measured the circumference of the earth in 180 BC. But what did the medievals know about this? It turns out that the 5th century book The Marriage of Philology and Mercury by the African Martianus Capella on the seven liberal arts contained the calculations of Eratosthenes in Latin. This work was copied and distributed widely starting in the 9th century. And so medieval scholars both knew Eratosthenes’ calculation for the circumference of the earth and the possible circumsolar orbits of the inner planets.
Another highlight from the book is how necessary the seemingly slow medieval period is for building the foundations for further developments. Where else were precursor hypotheses about optics explored enough that Kepler would have several rival conceptions to work on and reconcile?

De Amicitia by Cicero for the Latin practice.

Xunzi his anthropology should be taken seriously. I’m enjoying the tensions between his and rival Western views. I don’t know where in the western canonical tradition one encounters this exact mix of values.

The Pragmatist’s Guide to Crafting Religion by Simone and Michael Collins – off-the-wall wanderings about culture, cults, family, morals and metaphysics. I would have never believed secular Calvinists 1) exist, and 2) could create a work like this. The vehement anti-Quaker arguments tickle me wholly. The insistence on morality, cult, and metaphysics strikes me as “asking the right questions” and the view of human nature and the goal of existence strikes me as a twisted version of human flourishing based upon the pagan blood-god of Calvinism. This book is firmly in the anti-canon of eschatology, metaphysics, and social life. It reminds me of the type of social writing found in Zephaniah Kingsley’s tracts. However, Zephaniah was a pro-Spanish-style slavery Quaker, a fact which actually supports Collins’ point about Quaker morals… worth reading if you are an SSC fan, Albion’s Seed seeker, depressed philosopher, or pronatalist hoping to resist or promote certain versions of pronatalism.

The Golden Compass by Philip Pullman. Good so far.

Kalevala. The rocks, the ice, the sleds, the demigods, the sauna, the suicides, the sea, the snow-covered trees. Tervetuloa Pohjolaan!

Articles

ESG Banking
Fantastic reflection on ESG banking and the lackluster thoughtfulness from conservative groups.

Genesis in Hebrew
Psalms in Hebrew
Hebrew listening.

The Last 20 Years in Japan
What is the breakdown of causes that cause depreciation of housing on Japan? That’s my question. Can such a regime locally compete within a Western city? For example, could one of New York’s boroughs implement Tokyo rules and rise above Manhattan? I doubt it. This seems like a path dependency thing, you have to already have great returns from moving into the city that offset the depreciation of purchases. (Maybe San Francisco could do this successfully, since building more would not reduce rents as much as encourage greater productivity through more high-skilled immigration? Maybe the same is true of Brooklyn?)

The Spiritual Benefits of Material Progress So juicy. Baptize this.

Can Computers Actually Create Growth, When Humans are the Ones Stopping it? A heresy that is actually orthodox. The real big problems of governance and growth are not technological. We could be doing a lot better in creating a prosperous and transcendent culture!

Books Read December 2022

The Jesuits: A History by Markus Friedrich

The Personal MBA by Josh Kaufman

The Network State by Balaji Srinivasan

Leafing through various Raymond Smullyan riddle and puzzle books.

  1. Edmund Burke on Learning and Culture. Very beautifully written and eloquent.
  2. Why biology and medicine are hard to innovate in.
  3. How Utopian Should We Be? and Defining the Feasible Set by Tyler Cowen
  4. Growth in India is more important than a lot of other things.
  5. Perhaps It Is A Bad Thing That The World’s Leading AI Companies Cannot Control Their AIs
  6. The rise and fall of peer review – by Adam Mastroianni
  7. The Media Very Rarely Lies – by Scott Alexander
  8. The year in AI is astounding.

Books Read November 2022

Hebrew: The Eternal Language by William Chomsky – some unbecoming hyperbole throughout, but the story of the preservation and reestablishment of Hebrew as a national language is fascinating.

Wealth of Nations Book 5 by Adam Smith – I read part of this as a rejoinder to John Locke’s overstated anti-papist sentiments.

Metaphysics by Aristotle – Just dipped in. But I discovered that Aristotle has something to offer again! The man was so ahead of his time.

The Master and Margarita by Mikhael Bugakov – widely considered to be one of the top two Russian novels. Premise: The Devil pays Moscow a visit in 1930 to see how the people are getting on. It is terrifying, hilarious, bitter, and lovely.

Articles:

Some more stories of the great tutoring tradition.

Nonexistence as a fuzzy philosophical concept.

October Reads

These were the best:

Books

HPMOR

Becoming Trader Joe by Joe Coulombe.

Articles
1. What made America the greatest technological country?

2. Was it size of industry? Was it social control by the government?    

3. A Columbian Exchange. Making Columbus Day arguments cool again.

4. Finding good influences on the internet. 

Poem

“The Highways Considered as Gods” Dana Gioia 

Podcasts

“Ted Gioia” Conversations with Coleman

“Of Boys and Men” Conversations with Coleman

Shaw on Physical Hardihood and Spiritual Cowardice

“If there are dangerous precipices about, it is much easier and cheaper to forbid people to walk near the edge than to put up an effective fence: that is why both legislators and parents and the paid deputies of parents are always inhibiting and prohibiting and punishing and scolding and laming and cramping and delaying progress and growth instead of making the dangerous places as safe as possible and then boldly taking and allowing others to take the irreducible minimum of risk.

“It is easier to convert most people to the need for allowing their children to run physical risks than moral ones. I can remember a relative of mine who, when I was a small child, unused to horses and very much afraid of them, insisted on putting me on a rather rumbustious pony with little spurs on my heels (knowing that in my agitation I would use them unconsciously), and being enormously amused at my terrors. Yet when that same lady discovered that I had found a copy of The Arabian Nights and was devouring it with avidity, she was horrified, and hid it away from me lest it should break my soul as the pony might have broken my neck. This way of producing hardy bodies and timid souls is so common in country houses that you may spend hours in them listening to stories of broken collar bones, broken backs, and broken necks without coming upon a single spiritual adventure or daring thought.”

A Treatise on Parents and CHildren

It’s better to teach someone to swim, chainsaw, and parachute through practice and explanation and practice rather than deadly Darwinian experience. The same goes for the moral and intellectual hazards of life.

August Reads

Dip

The Timeless Way of Building by Christopher Alexander

Liber Regulae Pastoralis by St. Gregory the Great

Dive

Seven Surrenders by Ada Palmer

The Art of Doing Science and Engineering by Hammond

Farnsworth’s Classical English Rhetoric

  1. Russ Roberts critiques utilitarian economics.
  1. Will MacAskill denies he’s a utilitarian, just as I predicted.
  1. Charitable giving advice from Tyler 
  1. The dissolution of the monasteries and economic growth. Interesting.
  1. Difference in gullibility between nonbelievers and believers.
  1. Prompting yourself to be a better writer.
  1. Media outlets that didn’t pass High School writing and research.
  1. Aesthetics matter.
  1. Athens and Jerusalem and Silicon Valley: Three Cities 

Podcast episodes that made my mind dance to the exact chord that animates creation:

Tyler grills Will. Will responds well. It’s a glass bead extravaganza.

Zohar elicits deep insight about the nature of Torah and economics.

This. Agnes Callard offers a vision of a new literacy which allows us to know ourselves.